Reformation
Reformation, the religious revolution that took place in the Western church in the 16th-century which was initiated by John wycliffe. Its greatest leaders undoubtedly were Martin Luther and John Calvin , Jan Hus . Having far-reaching political, economic, and social effects, the Reformation became the basis for the founding of Protestantism, one of the three major branches of Christianity.
The world of the late medieval Roman Catholic Church from which the 16th-century reformers emerged was a complex one. Over the centuries the church, particularly in the office of the papacy, had become deeply involved in the political life of western Europe .
martin Luther reformation
By the early 1500s, many people in Western Europe were growing increasingly dissatisfied with the Christian Church. Many found the Pope too involved with secular (worldly) matters, rather than with his flocks spiritual well-being. Lower church officials were poorly educated and broke vows by living richly and keeping mistresses. Some officials practiced simony, or passing down their title as priest or bishop to their illegitimate sons. In keeping with the many social changes of the Renaissance, people began to boldly challenge the authority of the Christian Church.
Early Calls for Church Reforms
There were some early calls for church reform in that last part of the fifteenth century. Jan Hus (1372-1415) a Bohemian scholar was burned at the stake for his criticisms of The Church. Englishman John Wycliffe (1328-1384), a professor at Oxford, attacked the Eucharist, the Christian ceremony of taking bread and wine, calling it a source of superstition. Wycliffe claimed the bible to be final authority, superseding even that of the Pope. Both Hus and Wycliffe attracted a small following, but any major opposition to the Christian Church was still a century away.
Martin Luther and his 95 Theses
A German monk by the name of Martin Luther was particularly bothered by the selling of indulgences. An indulgence, a religious pardon that released a sinner from performing specific penalties, could be bought from a church official for various fees. Martin Luther was especially troubled because some church officials gave people the impression that they could buy their way into heaven. To express his growing concern of church corruption, Martin Luther wrote his famous 95 Theses, which called for a full reform of the Christian Church. In it, he stressed the following points:
- People could only win salvation by faith in God's forgiveness. The Church taught that faith, along with good works was needed for salvation.
- The Pope is a false authority. The bible was the one true authority.
- All people with faith in Christ were equal. People did not need priest and bishops to interpret the bible for them. They could read it themselves and make up their own minds.
On October 31, 1517, Martin Luther tacked his 95 Theses to the church door at Wittenberg, in Saxony, Germany. Luther invited other scholars to debate him on the matter church policies.
Martin Luther in Exile
Thanks to the printing press, Luther’s 95 Theses was reprinted throughout Germany, and soon he attracted many followers. And many enemies. In 1520, the Pope excommunicated Martin Luther. Luther responded by burning the papal decree in front of his students. In 1521, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V put Luther on trial, and had him declared an outlaw. Luther went into exile, living at Wartburg Castle, home to Prince Frederick the Wise, of Saxony. During his time at Wartburg, Luther translated the bible into German.
When Luther emerged from his exile ten months later, he found many of his theories had been put into practice. Priests now wore regular clothing, and called themselves ministers. Religious services were held in German rather than Latin. And many of the clergy had begun to marry. Martin Luther himself married a former nun in 1524. Instead pushing for reforms, the protesting Christians had begun their own religion. Styling themselves after their founder, they called themselves Lutherans.
Martin Luther’s message held great appeal for various groups, some of whom had less than spiritual concerns. Many Western European rulers resented the political power held by the Pope. In addition, many northern merchants did not like paying heavy taxes to the Church, which was situated far away, in Rome. They welcomed a chance to break with Rome once and for all.
Protestantism
In 1529 several German princes banded together, and signed a decree at the Diet of Speyer, publicly declaring their support for Luther and his teachings. They became known as the protesting princes. Hence the word Protestant.
In the years following Martin Luther’s radical break with the church, much warfare occurred in and around Western Europe. Despite their best efforts, Catholic (as they were now referred to) rulers often could not bring their subjects back to the Church. In 1555, at the Peace of Augsburg, all German princes agreed that the religion of each German state was to be decided by its ruler. Elsewhere in Europe, the Wars of Religion were not so easily solved.
New Religions
Martin Luther and the protesting princes inspired an entire generation of people to break away from the Catholic Church. Men like John Calvin and John Knox became outspoken critics of Catholicism, and brought Protestantism to other parts of Western Europe. King Henry VIII (you know, the guy with all the wives) cleverly jumped on the protestant bandwagon, declaring himself head of the new Church of England. He then granted himself a very convenient divorce from his first wife, Catherine of Aragon. Other groups, such as the Huguenots in France, and Anabaptists in the Netherlands would further divide the Christian religion. The Catholic Church scrambled to do damage control, initializing what would become the Counter Reformation (also known as the Catholic Reformation). However, they would not succeed in stamping out Protestantism. Never again would all Christians worship under one roof.
Jan Hus reformation
Jan Hus was a Bohemian (Czechoslavakian) priest ordained in 1401, who shared similar views with John Wyckcliffe concerning the excesses of the medieval Catholic Church. He came from a modest background and by scrimping and saving his parents put him through the university of Prague where he obtained a Master of Arts and Bachelor of Divinity degrees.
There was a strong link with the teachings of John Wicklcliffe through the offices of Queen Anne (d 1394) wife of Richard II, daughter of the Emperor Charles IV, and sister to king Wenceslaus, of Bohemia. Anne could not tolerate the devotions of the Catholic church and became a devout follower and sponsor of Wickcliffe. Through her and her royal contacts evangelism gained a hold in Bohemia; meanwhile Wickcliffe`s books were taken to Prague by an Englishman, Peter Patne, principal of Edmund Hall, Oxford who had to flee from the papists. A response to this was the seizure of such books from across Bohemia by the order of archbishop Sbynko and a ceremonial burning - said to be 200 volumes finely written, bound in leather and gold bosses. Paine was soon lecturing at the university and was avidly supported by the students who resented the actions of the archbishop.
Hus spent most of his career at Prague University and as a preacher in the nearby Bethlehem Chapel. Held in great esteem, he became involved in the politics of the university which had been set up by Charles IV with three quarters of the professors from the states of Bavaria, Saxony and Poland ( most of whom were German). As a result Bohemians were worse off in the allocation of benefices and other appointments. Hus represented the case to King Wencelas and the privileges were revoked. This caused a split in the university with the German faction moving to Misnia. But Prague continued to thrive under the new order. His early conflict with the Church came through his opposition to two decrees by Archbishop Sbynko concerning Wycliffe `s books, when he maintained that the professors had the right to read whatever they wished without being molested.
His public speaking emphasised personal piety and purity of life and stressed the role of the Scriptures as the authority for the church. An early publication by him, On the Church, defined the church as the body of Christ with Christ its only head, and taught that only God can forgive sin. These beliefs put him into conflict with the Catholic Church who regarded him and Wyckcliffe as two of the most dangerous heretics in Europe. Underpinning the resentment of the church was that Hus had sought to remove the University of Prague from the jurisdiction of Gregory XII ( one of the Three Popes then disputing amongst themselves who was the genuine Pope).
Hus continued to speak against the pope and cardinals establishing doctrine of the church, which he said was contrary to Scripture. He further advocated that non one should slavishly follow an instruction from a cleric that was plainly wrong. These seeds of discontent he expanded to dissatisfaction with the conduct and corruptness of clerics, the worshipping of idols, going on pilgrimages ; the practice of indulgences; and the withholding of the wine from the people during Holy Communion.
About 1410 Hus retired from the university and went to his birth place at Hussenitz where he continued a strong critic of the church, including the Bull of Pope John XXIII declaring a crusade against the King of naples and granting indulgences to all who participated. In 1412 he returned to Prague where his orations gave rise to some public unrest, including demands that Pope John XXIII was the Antichrist. The unrest caused the magistrates to take action against the Hussites some of whom were arrested, and despite assurances to their armed supporters, the prisoners were privately beheaded . This led to the bodies being forcibly recovered and removal for burial. A list of some forty five of Wickcliffe`s propositions was drawn up and censured (thereby exerting the authority of Rome) , after which the magistrates accused the Hussites of sedition, thereby seeking to justify their action. Hus responded by publishing a treatise about the church with Jesus Christ its head and foundation - the pope and cardinals are only members of it, and no one is obliged to obey them or the bishops. He also published a list of six errors that were fixed to the church door charging the clergy:
By believing that the priest by saying mass, becomes the creator of his creator.
Of saying that we ought to believe in the virgin, the pope, and in the saints.
That the priests can remit the pain and guilt of sin.
That everyone must obey his superiors, whether their demands be just or unjust.
That every excommunication, just or unjust, binds the excommunicant.
The sixth related to the practice of simony.
For a while Hus was reasonably safe in the distant lands of Bohemia but in late 1414 he was summoned to the Council of Constance that had convened on 15 November 1414. He was called by Pope John XXIII to explain his views. In the fashion of the day, despite having a most solemn safe conduct from the Emperor, Sigismund, he was seized and cast into prison when he presented himself at Constance. But Pope John fled when the Emperor arrived in December, the Council having decreed that the three Popes then existing should stand down pending consideration of the matter (who was the one and true pope).
The Council appointed the cardinals of Cambray and St Mark, the bishop of Dol and the abbot of the Cistercians, to continue with the process against Hus. Joined by other bishops thye was asked Hus to confirm his writings, some thirty of which were cited, many being commentaries based on issues raised by Wyckcliffe. Some eighty nine charges were raised against him but very few indeed were in any wayproven. On 10 June the Emperor sent four bishops and two lords to get Hus to receant but he declined to do so. On 7 July he appeared before the Council at its fifteenth session, and again he refused to abjure. At this the bishop of Lodi launched into a tirade about heretics and the Council proceeded to condemn him as a manifest heretic; taught many errors; defied the keys of the church; seduced and scandalised the faithful by his obstinacy ; having rashly appealed to the tribunal of Christ. He was duly condemned to be degraded, have his books burnt and handed over to the secular authority ( for burning).
In fact Hus was not condemned for any error of doctrine but for having the temerity to attack the pomp, pride and avarice of the pope, cardinals and prelates of the church. It is true that he could not abide the dignities and high living of the church and considered the doings of the pope to be Antichrist like. But he had not opposed transubstantiation, the seven sacraments or the mass - the usual benchmarks for determining a heretic. Indeed both he and Jerome accepted the mass and transubstantiation, both believing in the real presence. Neither did he specifically attack the authority of the church of Rome - , if it was well governed. But such was the arrogance of the Church at that time there was no stopping the inevitable cry for condign punishment for heresy.
Despite these quite moderate criticisms as compared with Wyckcliffe`s more substantial allegations, Hus was seen to be a danger and rushed to execution on 6/15 July 1415 ( Rolt in Lives of the Principal Reformers says 2 May 1415). The despicable treatment of Hus`s remains serves perhaps to illustrate just how afraid the prelates were of the martyr, his criticisms and his very memory.
But the spite and bitterness of the Church did not stop there, turning to focus its venom on Master Jerome of Prague, a friend and co religionist of Hus. Jerome was held in great respect, not only for being Hus`s colleague but in his own right as a man of great learning, with degrees of Master of arts from Prague, Heidelberg, Paris and Cologne. Among his earlier accomplishments was a journey to England where he had copied out all the writings of Wyckcliffe that he brought back to Prague. He was cited to appear before the Council of Constance 17 April 1415. Jerome sought a safe conduct to Constance but ominously only received one for going there, not for a return. Approaching Constance he was duly seized and cast into prison where he was surrounded by friends urging him to recant as they thought there was no chance of escape if he went for trial [The Emperor had already publicly said that an example ought to be made of him]. His public abjuration was, however, rejected saying that he was insincere. New articles were then alleged to keep him in prison.He was returned to prison where he was again assailed by his dissatisfied enemies who brought some 107 specious charges against him, in their determination that he should be executed.
Jerome was disgracefully treated, harassed and bound in chains. His accusers, such as they were, made sweeping allegations of errors but could not come up with specific instances nor would they allow Jerome to explain his views without interruption. Soon the cries of heretic broke out and a blood - or burning, lust took over. Jerome was heard by the Council of Constance over a period of days in May 1416 having been incarcerated in a dungeon, without food, daylight or sleep for three hundred and forty days. Despite the privations he dealt effectively with the charges; finally he withdrew his recantation and greatly regretted unjustly speaking of Hus and his doctrines. Again he was chained and fettered and thrown into prison to await his judgment.
Shortly after the odious bishop Lodi preached a sermon and set the machinery of execution into motion. Jerome was formally deemed a heretic and sentenced to be burned forthwith. On 30 May 1416 (Rolt in Lives of the Principle Reformers has 1 June 1416) , at the same spot as Jan Hus had died, they stripped him of his clothes, chained and roped him and heaped firewood over him, then set it alight. It is said that Jerome kept singing and praying for many minutes before the roar of the fire drowned his voice out, even then his body and mouth were working for a further fifteen minutes or so. His clothes, boots, bedding from the prison, and his personal papers, were brought and heaped on the fire so that eventually all was burned, and the residual dust cast into the waters of the river Rhine.
A consequence of these executions was a protestation by some fifty four nobles to the Council of Constance in defence of Hus and Jerome. The spite and malevolence of the prelates only succeeded in raising national feelings in Czechoslovakia and the establishment of a Hussite Church which survived until ca 1620. Moreover, their executions did not extirpate opposition but served to focus attention of the serious minded throughout Europe to the cruelty, injustice and hypocrisy exercised by the papal authority. The obvious intention became clear - to perpetuate ignorance superstition and, in short, slavery to Rome. Other kingdoms and states occasionally resisted the encroachments of Rome and a momentum was beginning to build for reformation.
Actual breaks would soon follow that created new political alliances based on religion. In a short time the contending religions separated out to Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Brandenburgh, Prussia, England, Scotland, Ireland and Holland with Protestant governments. Italy, Spain, Portugal, and the Spanish Belgic states were Catholic. Germany, with its many princes were divided roughly half and half; Switzerland was divided but preponderantly Protestant. And France almost turned, having a large minority firm in the Protestant faith. The catholics were still numerically superior although the Protestants rather weakened their position by the two major divisions - following Martin Luther and Philip Melanchthon or Calvin. Lutheranism largely prevailed in the northern states of Norway, Sweden, Denmark and the German states, while in Britain, Holland, Switzerland and France Protestantism followed Calvinistic lines. The importance to the English Reformation of these alignments was in the strategic alliances to safeguard her borders.
John Calvin
John Calvin was born in 1509. He died in 1564. John Calvin was the son of a lawyer. He was born in Noyon, Picardy and was therefore a Frenchman. Calvin developed a love for scholarship and literature.
In 1523 he went to the University of Paris where he studied theology.
To maintain himself while a student, Calvin secured a small chaplaincy attached to Noyon Cathedral.
In 1528 he went to Orleans to study Law, and one year later Calvin went to Bourges also to study Law.
Calvin was pressurised by his father to study Law but in 1531 his father died giving Calvin the freedom to resume his religious studies.
In the same year that his father died, Calvin went to the College de France in Paris to study Greek. This college was noted for its Humanistic approach to learning. In fact, all the colleges that Calvin attended had Humanistic leanings and it was only natural that this influenced Calvin. He became an admirer of Erasmus.
At some point between 1528 and 1533 he experienced a "sudden conversion" and grasped Protestantism. "God subdued my soul to docility by a sudden conversion" was how Calvin described this experience.
Many historians look on the time from 1531 to 1533 as being the key time as this was the first time that he had been free from his father’s ‘shackles’. Calvin was highly critical of the abuses in the French Catholic church but he never doubted that he was God’s chosen instrument in the spiritual regeneration of the world.
At this time in France his ideas would have been heretical especially after the Day of the Placards incident when Francis I felt personally threatened by the Protestants and joined with the Sorbonne and the Parlément of Paris to hunt out heretics. Calvin lived at a dangerous time for heretics and in 1533 he fled Paris. In the following year 24 heretics were burned at the stake. For three years (1533 to 1536) he roamed France, Italy and Switzerland.
In 1536 the first edition of "Institutes of the Christian Religion" was published in Basle. It was revised on a number of occasions and the final edition was published in 1559. This book was a clear explanation of his religious beliefs. The later versions expanded on how his church should be organised.
In July 1536, Calvin went to Geneva which became the centre of his work. He had been trying to go to Strasbourg but the spread of the Habsburg-Valois Wars made him detour to Geneva where a fiery Protestant called Guillaume Farel persuaded him to stay.
Geneva was a French-speaking Swiss city. At the time of Calvin’s arrival the city was struggling to achieve independence against two authorities who were trying to exercise control over Geneva. The first was the Dukes of Savoy and the second was the Bishop of Geneva. Geneva was not yet part of Switzerland (not until 1815) and the city allied with the cantons of Bern and Fribourg against Savoy. The bishop fled Geneva and Savoy was defeated in 1535.
In May 1536 the city adopted religious reform:
1) monasteries were dissolved
2) Mass was abolished
3) Papal authority renounced
But within Geneva itself a struggle took place between those who wanted mild reform (such as no compulsory church attendance) and those who demanded radical reform such as Calvin and Farel. The split was deeper than this however. The mild reformers were called the Libertines and they wanted magistrates firmly in control of the clergy. Calvin wanted a city controlled by the clergy - a theocracy. In 1538, the Libertines won the day and Farel and Calvin fled the city and went to Strasbourg.
From 1538 to 1541 Calvin stayed in Strasbourg. Here he learned a lot about the ideas of Martin Bucer; a moderate Protestant reformer from Germany. Calvin was especially interested in Bucer’s ideas on ecclesiastical organisation.
In 1540 Calvin attended a Catholic/Protestant conference at Hagenau and in the following year he attended similar conferences at Worms and Regensburg.
In September 1541 Calvin returned to Geneva after the Libertines had fallen from power in 1540. It took Calvin 14 years before he could fully impose his version of liturgy, doctrine, organisation of the church and moral behaviour.
Calvin’s services were plain and simple. He placed great importance on the sermon. His sermons were very logical and learned. Though he himself liked music, he distrusted its use in religious services believing that it distracted people from the matter in hand - the worship and the seeking knowledge of God. Musical instruments were banned from churches - though congregational singing was permitted and this proved to be both popular and an effective way of ‘spreading’ the message. All matters relating to worship came from the Scriptures - so psalms took the place of hymns in services.
Church government
In 1541, added by the city council, Calvin drew up the Ecclesiastical Ordinances. He rejected the organisation of the Medieval Church as contrary to the New Testament. He wanted a church modelled on the church in Apostolic times. There were to be no bishops. All ministers were equal. They had to preach, administer the sacraments and look after the spiritual welfare of the people. Moral discipline was also upheld by the ministers - but they were helped by the elders.
The elders were civilian (laymen) who lived within the congregation and who were elected by the city council. Calvin was not keen on this but it provided a link between the Church and state. The elders and deacons (also laymen who looked after the relief of the poor were subject to popular appointment and in that respect they introduced an important element of democracy into the church. All officers in the church belonged to the consistory and if there was a power struggle between the ministers and the laymen the outcome of that power struggle determined whether the church became Erastian (i.e. followed the way Erasmus wished a church to go) or the state would become theocratic i.e. the church controlled all aspects of life. Eventually Geneva became theocratic.
Calvin was a strong believer in behaving as God wished. Immorality was severely condemned but to begin with the consistory was not an effective body. It only started to be so when the number of appointed ministers was greater than the elders. Also in 1555, the city council gave the consistory the right to excommunicate offenders. Only after this date was a strict moral code imposed and every sin was made a crime e.g. no work or pleasure on a Sunday; no extravagance in dress. If you were excommunicated you were banished from the city. Blasphemy could be punished by death; lewd singing could be punished by your tongue being pierced.
Calvin believed that the church and state should be separate but the consistory tried moral and religious offenders. Two members of the consistory, accompanied by a minister, visited every parish to see that all was well and that people could see that they were being checked on. The state had to obey the teachings of the church, according to Calvin, and once he had managed to ensure this power, he felt confident enough to shut down taverns - though this was actually done by magistrates - and replace them with "evangelical refreshment places" where you could drink alcohol but this was accompanied by Bible readings. Meals (in public) were preceded by the saying of grace. Not surprisingly these were far from popular and even Calvin recognised that he had gone too far and the taverns were re-opened with due speed!!
Was Calvin totally supported in Geneva? It must be remembered that he was introducing a very disciplined code to the city and that this code effectively controlled peoples lives. There were those who opposed Calvin and he was never totally secure until he had the support of Geneva’s most important families. These 1,500 men had a right to elect the city council which governed the city’s 13,000 people. Many felt angered that their privacy was being trespassed on and though a moral code to maintain standards was accepted, Calvin saw it going all the way so that everybody in the city was affected - a view not shared by everyone. This changed in favour of Calvin when a Spanish scholar called Michael Servetus came to Geneva in 1553. He questioned the validity of the Trinity which is central to all Christianity. The Libertines sided with Servetus to ‘get’ at Calvin and but his trial and burning as a heretic gave Calvin the opportunity to target the Libertines who fled Geneva. In May 1555, the Libertines attempted a take-over of Geneva which was a disaster. The ringleaders were caught and executed and this success further strengthened Calvin’s hand.
What were Calvin’s beliefs ?
Calvinism was based around the absolute power and supremacy of God.
The world was created so that Mankind might get to know Him. Calvin believed that Man was sinful and could only approach God through faith in Christ - not through Mass and pilgrimages.
Calvin believed that the New Testament and baptism and the Eucharist had been created to provide Man with continual divine guidance when seeking faith.
In Calvin’s view, Man, who is corrupt, is confronted by the omnipotent (all powerful) and omnipresent (present everywhere) God who before the world began predestined some for eternal salvation (the Elect) while the others would suffer everlasting damnation (the Reprobates).
The chosen few were saved by the operation of divine grace which cannot be challenged and cannot be earned by Man’s merits. You might have lead what you might have considered a perfectly good life that was true to God but if you were a reprobate you remained one because for all your qualities you were inherently corrupt and God would know this even if you did not. However, a reprobate by behaving decently could achieve an inner conviction of salvation. An Elect could never fall from grace.
However, God remained the judge and lawgiver of men. Predestination remained a vital belief in Calvinism.
"We call predestination God’s eternal decree, by which He determined what He willed to become of each man. For all are not created in equal condition; rather, eternal life is ordained for some, eternal damnation for others." (Institutes)
Calvin and Europe
Calvinism was a belief that was dependent on the strength of the individual. You controlled your own goodness on Earth and this depended on the strength of your inner conviction. This was a personal belief not dependent on the whims of an individual pope or relics, indulgences etc. You may have been a reprobate in the eyes of God but you would not know this and so a person would lead a life for God to fully know him.
Geneva became the most influential city in the Protestant movement. It represented the city where religion had been most truly reformed and changed for the better. John Knox, the Scottish Protestant leader, called Geneva "the most perfect school of Christ." Geneva’s impact on Europe was huge for two reasons :
Calvin did not want his belief to be restricted to just one area and he did not want Geneva to become a refuge for fleeing Protestants. The city was to be the heart that pumped Calvinism to all of Europe. This spread was to be based on a new educational system which was established in Geneva. Both primary and secondary schools were created and in 1559 the Academy was established which was to become the University of Geneva.Geneva was/is French speaking and Calvin spoke French. It was expected that many French Huguenots (Calvinists in France were known as Huguenots) would head for the university to train as missionaries. This was the main task of the university. In 1559 it had 162 students. In 1564, it had over 1500 students. Most of these were foreign. Calvin had some luck with his teaching staff as there had been a dispute over the level of pay at Lausanne University and many of the teaching staff there simply transferred to Geneva as the pay was better and the financial structure of the university was on a stronger footing. After their course at Geneva, the missionaries were given a French-speaking congregation in Switzerland where they could perfect their skills before moving on to France itself. The ease with which ministers could get into France was a bonus for Calvin. However, the size of the country was to be both a help and a hindrance to Calvinists.
France:
The first Huguenot (Calvinist) ministers arrived in France in 1553. By 1563, there were nearly 90 Huguenots in France and the speed of its spread surprised even Calvin.
Henry II of France was a strong catholic and he had established a body called the Chambre Ardente in 1547 to monitor and hunt out ‘heresy’ in France. It was not a success and was disbanded in 1550. Whereas his father (Francis I) had used Protestantism to help advance his power against the Parlement de Paris, Henry had no wish to have any association with Protestants whatsoever.
In 1555 the first Huguenot congregation to have a permanent minister was established in Paris. By 1558, this congregation was worshipping in the open guarded by armed sympathisers.
In 1559, the first synod (national council) was held in Paris. 72 local congregations were represented by the elders from each congregation. In some regions of France travelling ministers had to be used but this was never a major problem as the organisation of the church was so tight. Many Huguenot communities were near each other so communication was never really a problem. Educated merchants were drawn to Calvinism. This occurred probably as a result of the impact of the Renaissance and as a reaction to the rigidity of the catholic Church.
A number of noble families converted to Calvinism though there is not one common link to explain their conversion. Each family had its own individual reason. Ironically one of these reasons may have been patriotic. Catholicism was linked to Rome and since the Concordat of Bologna, the French had always linked their religion to national causes. By associating yourself with Calvinism, you would be expressing your belief that France should have no links to Italy.
The Huguenots were concentrated on the coast mainly in the west (La Rochelle) and in the south-east. They develop their own cavalry force and openly worshipped in their own churches. The sheer size of France aided them in the respect that the royal government in Paris found it difficult enough to assert its authority generally. The strict organisation of the Huguenots made any attempt by the authorities to crush them very difficult. Added to this was the simple fact that la Rochelle was a long way from Paris.
By 1561, there were 2150 Huguenot churches in France and Calvinists were estimated to be about 10% of the population - about 1 million people. It has to be remembered that the first Calvinist ministers only got to France in 1553. Calvinism within France became a large minority religion.
The Netherlands:
Calvin made important gains in this state. Ministers first arrived here in the 1550’s aided by Huguenot preachers who were fleeing from France. They made slow progress at first. Why ?
Lutheranism had already taken root as had Anabaptism so Calvinism was seen as another protest religion in a ever crowded field. There was also a lot of persecution in general against Protestants. In 1524, Charles V had introduced his own Inquisition to the region and in 1529 and 1531 new edicts were introduced ordering death to anyone who was found guilty of being a Lutheran or simply sheltered them or help Lutherans spread their beliefs.
In 1550 Charles V removed the authority of city councils to try heretics. It was his belief that city magistrates were too lenient and that the provincial courts which took over this duty would have far greater control than the city magistrates.
These measures did check the spread of Protestantism but Calvinism was the most successful of the three and the best equipped to survive. Why ?
Its system of non-religious governments by elders allowed it to operate regardless of the authorities. The Anabaptists were too reliant on the role of the individual as opposed to strength in numbers and organisation while the Lutheranswere poorly organised and more open to attack from the authorities.
By 1560, Calvinism had not spread far because the authorities were very active against it. In total, Protestantism accounted for 5% of the whole population in the Netherlands of which the Calvinists were just a small part. No noble men appeared to be interested as they were too concerned with their political power and economic well being. Their knew that the Catholic Church was corrupt but they found the Calvinists far too authoritarian as the church told you what you could do and what you could not. Most Calvinists were from Antwerp, Ghent and regions near Germany.
Germany:
Calvinism developed into a popular movement in NW Rhineland and Westphalia - both neighbours of the Netherlands. These were the only areas to convert. In 1562, Frederick III modelled churches in his territory on the Calvinist model which was contrary to the 1555 Religious Settlement of Augsburg which stated that churches could only be Catholic or Lutheran. Heidelburg became a leading intellectual centre but the spread elsewhere was very limited due to Lutheranism and the input of Calvinism into Germany served to disunite the Protestant movement and help the Catholic Church in the Counter-Reformation. John Sigismund of Brandenburg was to convert at a later date and his state followed.
Poland:
The western area of Poland was German speaking which had helped Luther. However, Poland had a history of nationalism and a desire to be independent and this did not help Luther who had not spent time organising his church. Calvinism first reached Poland in 1550 and the nobles latched on to the idea of using the civilian population - and giving them some power in their religious rights - as a lever to expand their own power. Two leading nobles (Prince Radziwill the Black and John a Lasco) actively helped the spread of Calvinism as did two kings (Stephen II and Stephen Bathory). Regardless of this, Calvinism did not spread far. Why ?
Most Poles did not speak German and therefore language remained a major stumbling block as most Calvinist preachers did not speak Polish and could not communicate with the population. Another problem was that numerous Protestant religions already existed in Poland (Bohemian Brethren, Anabaptists, Unitarians etc.) and those who might be won away from the Catholic Church had already been so.
In 1573 in the Confederation of Warsaw, both Catholics and Protestants agreed to make religious toleration part of the constitution to be sworn by each succeeding king. But the division among the Protestants meant that the Catholic Church dominated the country and her nickname at this time was the "Spain of the north".
The world of the late medieval Roman Catholic Church from which the 16th-century reformers emerged was a complex one. Over the centuries the church, particularly in the office of the papacy, had become deeply involved in the political life of western Europe .
martin Luther reformation
By the early 1500s, many people in Western Europe were growing increasingly dissatisfied with the Christian Church. Many found the Pope too involved with secular (worldly) matters, rather than with his flocks spiritual well-being. Lower church officials were poorly educated and broke vows by living richly and keeping mistresses. Some officials practiced simony, or passing down their title as priest or bishop to their illegitimate sons. In keeping with the many social changes of the Renaissance, people began to boldly challenge the authority of the Christian Church.
Early Calls for Church Reforms
There were some early calls for church reform in that last part of the fifteenth century. Jan Hus (1372-1415) a Bohemian scholar was burned at the stake for his criticisms of The Church. Englishman John Wycliffe (1328-1384), a professor at Oxford, attacked the Eucharist, the Christian ceremony of taking bread and wine, calling it a source of superstition. Wycliffe claimed the bible to be final authority, superseding even that of the Pope. Both Hus and Wycliffe attracted a small following, but any major opposition to the Christian Church was still a century away.
Martin Luther and his 95 Theses
A German monk by the name of Martin Luther was particularly bothered by the selling of indulgences. An indulgence, a religious pardon that released a sinner from performing specific penalties, could be bought from a church official for various fees. Martin Luther was especially troubled because some church officials gave people the impression that they could buy their way into heaven. To express his growing concern of church corruption, Martin Luther wrote his famous 95 Theses, which called for a full reform of the Christian Church. In it, he stressed the following points:
- People could only win salvation by faith in God's forgiveness. The Church taught that faith, along with good works was needed for salvation.
- The Pope is a false authority. The bible was the one true authority.
- All people with faith in Christ were equal. People did not need priest and bishops to interpret the bible for them. They could read it themselves and make up their own minds.
On October 31, 1517, Martin Luther tacked his 95 Theses to the church door at Wittenberg, in Saxony, Germany. Luther invited other scholars to debate him on the matter church policies.
Martin Luther in Exile
Thanks to the printing press, Luther’s 95 Theses was reprinted throughout Germany, and soon he attracted many followers. And many enemies. In 1520, the Pope excommunicated Martin Luther. Luther responded by burning the papal decree in front of his students. In 1521, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V put Luther on trial, and had him declared an outlaw. Luther went into exile, living at Wartburg Castle, home to Prince Frederick the Wise, of Saxony. During his time at Wartburg, Luther translated the bible into German.
When Luther emerged from his exile ten months later, he found many of his theories had been put into practice. Priests now wore regular clothing, and called themselves ministers. Religious services were held in German rather than Latin. And many of the clergy had begun to marry. Martin Luther himself married a former nun in 1524. Instead pushing for reforms, the protesting Christians had begun their own religion. Styling themselves after their founder, they called themselves Lutherans.
Martin Luther’s message held great appeal for various groups, some of whom had less than spiritual concerns. Many Western European rulers resented the political power held by the Pope. In addition, many northern merchants did not like paying heavy taxes to the Church, which was situated far away, in Rome. They welcomed a chance to break with Rome once and for all.
Protestantism
In 1529 several German princes banded together, and signed a decree at the Diet of Speyer, publicly declaring their support for Luther and his teachings. They became known as the protesting princes. Hence the word Protestant.
In the years following Martin Luther’s radical break with the church, much warfare occurred in and around Western Europe. Despite their best efforts, Catholic (as they were now referred to) rulers often could not bring their subjects back to the Church. In 1555, at the Peace of Augsburg, all German princes agreed that the religion of each German state was to be decided by its ruler. Elsewhere in Europe, the Wars of Religion were not so easily solved.
New Religions
Martin Luther and the protesting princes inspired an entire generation of people to break away from the Catholic Church. Men like John Calvin and John Knox became outspoken critics of Catholicism, and brought Protestantism to other parts of Western Europe. King Henry VIII (you know, the guy with all the wives) cleverly jumped on the protestant bandwagon, declaring himself head of the new Church of England. He then granted himself a very convenient divorce from his first wife, Catherine of Aragon. Other groups, such as the Huguenots in France, and Anabaptists in the Netherlands would further divide the Christian religion. The Catholic Church scrambled to do damage control, initializing what would become the Counter Reformation (also known as the Catholic Reformation). However, they would not succeed in stamping out Protestantism. Never again would all Christians worship under one roof.
Jan Hus reformation
Jan Hus was a Bohemian (Czechoslavakian) priest ordained in 1401, who shared similar views with John Wyckcliffe concerning the excesses of the medieval Catholic Church. He came from a modest background and by scrimping and saving his parents put him through the university of Prague where he obtained a Master of Arts and Bachelor of Divinity degrees.
There was a strong link with the teachings of John Wicklcliffe through the offices of Queen Anne (d 1394) wife of Richard II, daughter of the Emperor Charles IV, and sister to king Wenceslaus, of Bohemia. Anne could not tolerate the devotions of the Catholic church and became a devout follower and sponsor of Wickcliffe. Through her and her royal contacts evangelism gained a hold in Bohemia; meanwhile Wickcliffe`s books were taken to Prague by an Englishman, Peter Patne, principal of Edmund Hall, Oxford who had to flee from the papists. A response to this was the seizure of such books from across Bohemia by the order of archbishop Sbynko and a ceremonial burning - said to be 200 volumes finely written, bound in leather and gold bosses. Paine was soon lecturing at the university and was avidly supported by the students who resented the actions of the archbishop.
Hus spent most of his career at Prague University and as a preacher in the nearby Bethlehem Chapel. Held in great esteem, he became involved in the politics of the university which had been set up by Charles IV with three quarters of the professors from the states of Bavaria, Saxony and Poland ( most of whom were German). As a result Bohemians were worse off in the allocation of benefices and other appointments. Hus represented the case to King Wencelas and the privileges were revoked. This caused a split in the university with the German faction moving to Misnia. But Prague continued to thrive under the new order. His early conflict with the Church came through his opposition to two decrees by Archbishop Sbynko concerning Wycliffe `s books, when he maintained that the professors had the right to read whatever they wished without being molested.
His public speaking emphasised personal piety and purity of life and stressed the role of the Scriptures as the authority for the church. An early publication by him, On the Church, defined the church as the body of Christ with Christ its only head, and taught that only God can forgive sin. These beliefs put him into conflict with the Catholic Church who regarded him and Wyckcliffe as two of the most dangerous heretics in Europe. Underpinning the resentment of the church was that Hus had sought to remove the University of Prague from the jurisdiction of Gregory XII ( one of the Three Popes then disputing amongst themselves who was the genuine Pope).
Hus continued to speak against the pope and cardinals establishing doctrine of the church, which he said was contrary to Scripture. He further advocated that non one should slavishly follow an instruction from a cleric that was plainly wrong. These seeds of discontent he expanded to dissatisfaction with the conduct and corruptness of clerics, the worshipping of idols, going on pilgrimages ; the practice of indulgences; and the withholding of the wine from the people during Holy Communion.
About 1410 Hus retired from the university and went to his birth place at Hussenitz where he continued a strong critic of the church, including the Bull of Pope John XXIII declaring a crusade against the King of naples and granting indulgences to all who participated. In 1412 he returned to Prague where his orations gave rise to some public unrest, including demands that Pope John XXIII was the Antichrist. The unrest caused the magistrates to take action against the Hussites some of whom were arrested, and despite assurances to their armed supporters, the prisoners were privately beheaded . This led to the bodies being forcibly recovered and removal for burial. A list of some forty five of Wickcliffe`s propositions was drawn up and censured (thereby exerting the authority of Rome) , after which the magistrates accused the Hussites of sedition, thereby seeking to justify their action. Hus responded by publishing a treatise about the church with Jesus Christ its head and foundation - the pope and cardinals are only members of it, and no one is obliged to obey them or the bishops. He also published a list of six errors that were fixed to the church door charging the clergy:
By believing that the priest by saying mass, becomes the creator of his creator.
Of saying that we ought to believe in the virgin, the pope, and in the saints.
That the priests can remit the pain and guilt of sin.
That everyone must obey his superiors, whether their demands be just or unjust.
That every excommunication, just or unjust, binds the excommunicant.
The sixth related to the practice of simony.
For a while Hus was reasonably safe in the distant lands of Bohemia but in late 1414 he was summoned to the Council of Constance that had convened on 15 November 1414. He was called by Pope John XXIII to explain his views. In the fashion of the day, despite having a most solemn safe conduct from the Emperor, Sigismund, he was seized and cast into prison when he presented himself at Constance. But Pope John fled when the Emperor arrived in December, the Council having decreed that the three Popes then existing should stand down pending consideration of the matter (who was the one and true pope).
The Council appointed the cardinals of Cambray and St Mark, the bishop of Dol and the abbot of the Cistercians, to continue with the process against Hus. Joined by other bishops thye was asked Hus to confirm his writings, some thirty of which were cited, many being commentaries based on issues raised by Wyckcliffe. Some eighty nine charges were raised against him but very few indeed were in any wayproven. On 10 June the Emperor sent four bishops and two lords to get Hus to receant but he declined to do so. On 7 July he appeared before the Council at its fifteenth session, and again he refused to abjure. At this the bishop of Lodi launched into a tirade about heretics and the Council proceeded to condemn him as a manifest heretic; taught many errors; defied the keys of the church; seduced and scandalised the faithful by his obstinacy ; having rashly appealed to the tribunal of Christ. He was duly condemned to be degraded, have his books burnt and handed over to the secular authority ( for burning).
In fact Hus was not condemned for any error of doctrine but for having the temerity to attack the pomp, pride and avarice of the pope, cardinals and prelates of the church. It is true that he could not abide the dignities and high living of the church and considered the doings of the pope to be Antichrist like. But he had not opposed transubstantiation, the seven sacraments or the mass - the usual benchmarks for determining a heretic. Indeed both he and Jerome accepted the mass and transubstantiation, both believing in the real presence. Neither did he specifically attack the authority of the church of Rome - , if it was well governed. But such was the arrogance of the Church at that time there was no stopping the inevitable cry for condign punishment for heresy.
Despite these quite moderate criticisms as compared with Wyckcliffe`s more substantial allegations, Hus was seen to be a danger and rushed to execution on 6/15 July 1415 ( Rolt in Lives of the Principal Reformers says 2 May 1415). The despicable treatment of Hus`s remains serves perhaps to illustrate just how afraid the prelates were of the martyr, his criticisms and his very memory.
But the spite and bitterness of the Church did not stop there, turning to focus its venom on Master Jerome of Prague, a friend and co religionist of Hus. Jerome was held in great respect, not only for being Hus`s colleague but in his own right as a man of great learning, with degrees of Master of arts from Prague, Heidelberg, Paris and Cologne. Among his earlier accomplishments was a journey to England where he had copied out all the writings of Wyckcliffe that he brought back to Prague. He was cited to appear before the Council of Constance 17 April 1415. Jerome sought a safe conduct to Constance but ominously only received one for going there, not for a return. Approaching Constance he was duly seized and cast into prison where he was surrounded by friends urging him to recant as they thought there was no chance of escape if he went for trial [The Emperor had already publicly said that an example ought to be made of him]. His public abjuration was, however, rejected saying that he was insincere. New articles were then alleged to keep him in prison.He was returned to prison where he was again assailed by his dissatisfied enemies who brought some 107 specious charges against him, in their determination that he should be executed.
Jerome was disgracefully treated, harassed and bound in chains. His accusers, such as they were, made sweeping allegations of errors but could not come up with specific instances nor would they allow Jerome to explain his views without interruption. Soon the cries of heretic broke out and a blood - or burning, lust took over. Jerome was heard by the Council of Constance over a period of days in May 1416 having been incarcerated in a dungeon, without food, daylight or sleep for three hundred and forty days. Despite the privations he dealt effectively with the charges; finally he withdrew his recantation and greatly regretted unjustly speaking of Hus and his doctrines. Again he was chained and fettered and thrown into prison to await his judgment.
Shortly after the odious bishop Lodi preached a sermon and set the machinery of execution into motion. Jerome was formally deemed a heretic and sentenced to be burned forthwith. On 30 May 1416 (Rolt in Lives of the Principle Reformers has 1 June 1416) , at the same spot as Jan Hus had died, they stripped him of his clothes, chained and roped him and heaped firewood over him, then set it alight. It is said that Jerome kept singing and praying for many minutes before the roar of the fire drowned his voice out, even then his body and mouth were working for a further fifteen minutes or so. His clothes, boots, bedding from the prison, and his personal papers, were brought and heaped on the fire so that eventually all was burned, and the residual dust cast into the waters of the river Rhine.
A consequence of these executions was a protestation by some fifty four nobles to the Council of Constance in defence of Hus and Jerome. The spite and malevolence of the prelates only succeeded in raising national feelings in Czechoslovakia and the establishment of a Hussite Church which survived until ca 1620. Moreover, their executions did not extirpate opposition but served to focus attention of the serious minded throughout Europe to the cruelty, injustice and hypocrisy exercised by the papal authority. The obvious intention became clear - to perpetuate ignorance superstition and, in short, slavery to Rome. Other kingdoms and states occasionally resisted the encroachments of Rome and a momentum was beginning to build for reformation.
Actual breaks would soon follow that created new political alliances based on religion. In a short time the contending religions separated out to Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Brandenburgh, Prussia, England, Scotland, Ireland and Holland with Protestant governments. Italy, Spain, Portugal, and the Spanish Belgic states were Catholic. Germany, with its many princes were divided roughly half and half; Switzerland was divided but preponderantly Protestant. And France almost turned, having a large minority firm in the Protestant faith. The catholics were still numerically superior although the Protestants rather weakened their position by the two major divisions - following Martin Luther and Philip Melanchthon or Calvin. Lutheranism largely prevailed in the northern states of Norway, Sweden, Denmark and the German states, while in Britain, Holland, Switzerland and France Protestantism followed Calvinistic lines. The importance to the English Reformation of these alignments was in the strategic alliances to safeguard her borders.
John Calvin
John Calvin was born in 1509. He died in 1564. John Calvin was the son of a lawyer. He was born in Noyon, Picardy and was therefore a Frenchman. Calvin developed a love for scholarship and literature.
In 1523 he went to the University of Paris where he studied theology.
To maintain himself while a student, Calvin secured a small chaplaincy attached to Noyon Cathedral.
In 1528 he went to Orleans to study Law, and one year later Calvin went to Bourges also to study Law.
Calvin was pressurised by his father to study Law but in 1531 his father died giving Calvin the freedom to resume his religious studies.
In the same year that his father died, Calvin went to the College de France in Paris to study Greek. This college was noted for its Humanistic approach to learning. In fact, all the colleges that Calvin attended had Humanistic leanings and it was only natural that this influenced Calvin. He became an admirer of Erasmus.
At some point between 1528 and 1533 he experienced a "sudden conversion" and grasped Protestantism. "God subdued my soul to docility by a sudden conversion" was how Calvin described this experience.
Many historians look on the time from 1531 to 1533 as being the key time as this was the first time that he had been free from his father’s ‘shackles’. Calvin was highly critical of the abuses in the French Catholic church but he never doubted that he was God’s chosen instrument in the spiritual regeneration of the world.
At this time in France his ideas would have been heretical especially after the Day of the Placards incident when Francis I felt personally threatened by the Protestants and joined with the Sorbonne and the Parlément of Paris to hunt out heretics. Calvin lived at a dangerous time for heretics and in 1533 he fled Paris. In the following year 24 heretics were burned at the stake. For three years (1533 to 1536) he roamed France, Italy and Switzerland.
In 1536 the first edition of "Institutes of the Christian Religion" was published in Basle. It was revised on a number of occasions and the final edition was published in 1559. This book was a clear explanation of his religious beliefs. The later versions expanded on how his church should be organised.
In July 1536, Calvin went to Geneva which became the centre of his work. He had been trying to go to Strasbourg but the spread of the Habsburg-Valois Wars made him detour to Geneva where a fiery Protestant called Guillaume Farel persuaded him to stay.
Geneva was a French-speaking Swiss city. At the time of Calvin’s arrival the city was struggling to achieve independence against two authorities who were trying to exercise control over Geneva. The first was the Dukes of Savoy and the second was the Bishop of Geneva. Geneva was not yet part of Switzerland (not until 1815) and the city allied with the cantons of Bern and Fribourg against Savoy. The bishop fled Geneva and Savoy was defeated in 1535.
In May 1536 the city adopted religious reform:
1) monasteries were dissolved
2) Mass was abolished
3) Papal authority renounced
But within Geneva itself a struggle took place between those who wanted mild reform (such as no compulsory church attendance) and those who demanded radical reform such as Calvin and Farel. The split was deeper than this however. The mild reformers were called the Libertines and they wanted magistrates firmly in control of the clergy. Calvin wanted a city controlled by the clergy - a theocracy. In 1538, the Libertines won the day and Farel and Calvin fled the city and went to Strasbourg.
From 1538 to 1541 Calvin stayed in Strasbourg. Here he learned a lot about the ideas of Martin Bucer; a moderate Protestant reformer from Germany. Calvin was especially interested in Bucer’s ideas on ecclesiastical organisation.
In 1540 Calvin attended a Catholic/Protestant conference at Hagenau and in the following year he attended similar conferences at Worms and Regensburg.
In September 1541 Calvin returned to Geneva after the Libertines had fallen from power in 1540. It took Calvin 14 years before he could fully impose his version of liturgy, doctrine, organisation of the church and moral behaviour.
Calvin’s services were plain and simple. He placed great importance on the sermon. His sermons were very logical and learned. Though he himself liked music, he distrusted its use in religious services believing that it distracted people from the matter in hand - the worship and the seeking knowledge of God. Musical instruments were banned from churches - though congregational singing was permitted and this proved to be both popular and an effective way of ‘spreading’ the message. All matters relating to worship came from the Scriptures - so psalms took the place of hymns in services.
Church government
In 1541, added by the city council, Calvin drew up the Ecclesiastical Ordinances. He rejected the organisation of the Medieval Church as contrary to the New Testament. He wanted a church modelled on the church in Apostolic times. There were to be no bishops. All ministers were equal. They had to preach, administer the sacraments and look after the spiritual welfare of the people. Moral discipline was also upheld by the ministers - but they were helped by the elders.
The elders were civilian (laymen) who lived within the congregation and who were elected by the city council. Calvin was not keen on this but it provided a link between the Church and state. The elders and deacons (also laymen who looked after the relief of the poor were subject to popular appointment and in that respect they introduced an important element of democracy into the church. All officers in the church belonged to the consistory and if there was a power struggle between the ministers and the laymen the outcome of that power struggle determined whether the church became Erastian (i.e. followed the way Erasmus wished a church to go) or the state would become theocratic i.e. the church controlled all aspects of life. Eventually Geneva became theocratic.
Calvin was a strong believer in behaving as God wished. Immorality was severely condemned but to begin with the consistory was not an effective body. It only started to be so when the number of appointed ministers was greater than the elders. Also in 1555, the city council gave the consistory the right to excommunicate offenders. Only after this date was a strict moral code imposed and every sin was made a crime e.g. no work or pleasure on a Sunday; no extravagance in dress. If you were excommunicated you were banished from the city. Blasphemy could be punished by death; lewd singing could be punished by your tongue being pierced.
Calvin believed that the church and state should be separate but the consistory tried moral and religious offenders. Two members of the consistory, accompanied by a minister, visited every parish to see that all was well and that people could see that they were being checked on. The state had to obey the teachings of the church, according to Calvin, and once he had managed to ensure this power, he felt confident enough to shut down taverns - though this was actually done by magistrates - and replace them with "evangelical refreshment places" where you could drink alcohol but this was accompanied by Bible readings. Meals (in public) were preceded by the saying of grace. Not surprisingly these were far from popular and even Calvin recognised that he had gone too far and the taverns were re-opened with due speed!!
Was Calvin totally supported in Geneva? It must be remembered that he was introducing a very disciplined code to the city and that this code effectively controlled peoples lives. There were those who opposed Calvin and he was never totally secure until he had the support of Geneva’s most important families. These 1,500 men had a right to elect the city council which governed the city’s 13,000 people. Many felt angered that their privacy was being trespassed on and though a moral code to maintain standards was accepted, Calvin saw it going all the way so that everybody in the city was affected - a view not shared by everyone. This changed in favour of Calvin when a Spanish scholar called Michael Servetus came to Geneva in 1553. He questioned the validity of the Trinity which is central to all Christianity. The Libertines sided with Servetus to ‘get’ at Calvin and but his trial and burning as a heretic gave Calvin the opportunity to target the Libertines who fled Geneva. In May 1555, the Libertines attempted a take-over of Geneva which was a disaster. The ringleaders were caught and executed and this success further strengthened Calvin’s hand.
What were Calvin’s beliefs ?
Calvinism was based around the absolute power and supremacy of God.
The world was created so that Mankind might get to know Him. Calvin believed that Man was sinful and could only approach God through faith in Christ - not through Mass and pilgrimages.
Calvin believed that the New Testament and baptism and the Eucharist had been created to provide Man with continual divine guidance when seeking faith.
In Calvin’s view, Man, who is corrupt, is confronted by the omnipotent (all powerful) and omnipresent (present everywhere) God who before the world began predestined some for eternal salvation (the Elect) while the others would suffer everlasting damnation (the Reprobates).
The chosen few were saved by the operation of divine grace which cannot be challenged and cannot be earned by Man’s merits. You might have lead what you might have considered a perfectly good life that was true to God but if you were a reprobate you remained one because for all your qualities you were inherently corrupt and God would know this even if you did not. However, a reprobate by behaving decently could achieve an inner conviction of salvation. An Elect could never fall from grace.
However, God remained the judge and lawgiver of men. Predestination remained a vital belief in Calvinism.
"We call predestination God’s eternal decree, by which He determined what He willed to become of each man. For all are not created in equal condition; rather, eternal life is ordained for some, eternal damnation for others." (Institutes)
Calvin and Europe
Calvinism was a belief that was dependent on the strength of the individual. You controlled your own goodness on Earth and this depended on the strength of your inner conviction. This was a personal belief not dependent on the whims of an individual pope or relics, indulgences etc. You may have been a reprobate in the eyes of God but you would not know this and so a person would lead a life for God to fully know him.
Geneva became the most influential city in the Protestant movement. It represented the city where religion had been most truly reformed and changed for the better. John Knox, the Scottish Protestant leader, called Geneva "the most perfect school of Christ." Geneva’s impact on Europe was huge for two reasons :
Calvin did not want his belief to be restricted to just one area and he did not want Geneva to become a refuge for fleeing Protestants. The city was to be the heart that pumped Calvinism to all of Europe. This spread was to be based on a new educational system which was established in Geneva. Both primary and secondary schools were created and in 1559 the Academy was established which was to become the University of Geneva.Geneva was/is French speaking and Calvin spoke French. It was expected that many French Huguenots (Calvinists in France were known as Huguenots) would head for the university to train as missionaries. This was the main task of the university. In 1559 it had 162 students. In 1564, it had over 1500 students. Most of these were foreign. Calvin had some luck with his teaching staff as there had been a dispute over the level of pay at Lausanne University and many of the teaching staff there simply transferred to Geneva as the pay was better and the financial structure of the university was on a stronger footing. After their course at Geneva, the missionaries were given a French-speaking congregation in Switzerland where they could perfect their skills before moving on to France itself. The ease with which ministers could get into France was a bonus for Calvin. However, the size of the country was to be both a help and a hindrance to Calvinists.
France:
The first Huguenot (Calvinist) ministers arrived in France in 1553. By 1563, there were nearly 90 Huguenots in France and the speed of its spread surprised even Calvin.
Henry II of France was a strong catholic and he had established a body called the Chambre Ardente in 1547 to monitor and hunt out ‘heresy’ in France. It was not a success and was disbanded in 1550. Whereas his father (Francis I) had used Protestantism to help advance his power against the Parlement de Paris, Henry had no wish to have any association with Protestants whatsoever.
In 1555 the first Huguenot congregation to have a permanent minister was established in Paris. By 1558, this congregation was worshipping in the open guarded by armed sympathisers.
In 1559, the first synod (national council) was held in Paris. 72 local congregations were represented by the elders from each congregation. In some regions of France travelling ministers had to be used but this was never a major problem as the organisation of the church was so tight. Many Huguenot communities were near each other so communication was never really a problem. Educated merchants were drawn to Calvinism. This occurred probably as a result of the impact of the Renaissance and as a reaction to the rigidity of the catholic Church.
A number of noble families converted to Calvinism though there is not one common link to explain their conversion. Each family had its own individual reason. Ironically one of these reasons may have been patriotic. Catholicism was linked to Rome and since the Concordat of Bologna, the French had always linked their religion to national causes. By associating yourself with Calvinism, you would be expressing your belief that France should have no links to Italy.
The Huguenots were concentrated on the coast mainly in the west (La Rochelle) and in the south-east. They develop their own cavalry force and openly worshipped in their own churches. The sheer size of France aided them in the respect that the royal government in Paris found it difficult enough to assert its authority generally. The strict organisation of the Huguenots made any attempt by the authorities to crush them very difficult. Added to this was the simple fact that la Rochelle was a long way from Paris.
By 1561, there were 2150 Huguenot churches in France and Calvinists were estimated to be about 10% of the population - about 1 million people. It has to be remembered that the first Calvinist ministers only got to France in 1553. Calvinism within France became a large minority religion.
The Netherlands:
Calvin made important gains in this state. Ministers first arrived here in the 1550’s aided by Huguenot preachers who were fleeing from France. They made slow progress at first. Why ?
Lutheranism had already taken root as had Anabaptism so Calvinism was seen as another protest religion in a ever crowded field. There was also a lot of persecution in general against Protestants. In 1524, Charles V had introduced his own Inquisition to the region and in 1529 and 1531 new edicts were introduced ordering death to anyone who was found guilty of being a Lutheran or simply sheltered them or help Lutherans spread their beliefs.
In 1550 Charles V removed the authority of city councils to try heretics. It was his belief that city magistrates were too lenient and that the provincial courts which took over this duty would have far greater control than the city magistrates.
These measures did check the spread of Protestantism but Calvinism was the most successful of the three and the best equipped to survive. Why ?
Its system of non-religious governments by elders allowed it to operate regardless of the authorities. The Anabaptists were too reliant on the role of the individual as opposed to strength in numbers and organisation while the Lutheranswere poorly organised and more open to attack from the authorities.
By 1560, Calvinism had not spread far because the authorities were very active against it. In total, Protestantism accounted for 5% of the whole population in the Netherlands of which the Calvinists were just a small part. No noble men appeared to be interested as they were too concerned with their political power and economic well being. Their knew that the Catholic Church was corrupt but they found the Calvinists far too authoritarian as the church told you what you could do and what you could not. Most Calvinists were from Antwerp, Ghent and regions near Germany.
Germany:
Calvinism developed into a popular movement in NW Rhineland and Westphalia - both neighbours of the Netherlands. These were the only areas to convert. In 1562, Frederick III modelled churches in his territory on the Calvinist model which was contrary to the 1555 Religious Settlement of Augsburg which stated that churches could only be Catholic or Lutheran. Heidelburg became a leading intellectual centre but the spread elsewhere was very limited due to Lutheranism and the input of Calvinism into Germany served to disunite the Protestant movement and help the Catholic Church in the Counter-Reformation. John Sigismund of Brandenburg was to convert at a later date and his state followed.
Poland:
The western area of Poland was German speaking which had helped Luther. However, Poland had a history of nationalism and a desire to be independent and this did not help Luther who had not spent time organising his church. Calvinism first reached Poland in 1550 and the nobles latched on to the idea of using the civilian population - and giving them some power in their religious rights - as a lever to expand their own power. Two leading nobles (Prince Radziwill the Black and John a Lasco) actively helped the spread of Calvinism as did two kings (Stephen II and Stephen Bathory). Regardless of this, Calvinism did not spread far. Why ?
Most Poles did not speak German and therefore language remained a major stumbling block as most Calvinist preachers did not speak Polish and could not communicate with the population. Another problem was that numerous Protestant religions already existed in Poland (Bohemian Brethren, Anabaptists, Unitarians etc.) and those who might be won away from the Catholic Church had already been so.
In 1573 in the Confederation of Warsaw, both Catholics and Protestants agreed to make religious toleration part of the constitution to be sworn by each succeeding king. But the division among the Protestants meant that the Catholic Church dominated the country and her nickname at this time was the "Spain of the north".